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Siliminsili

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Siliminsili
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Silimiinsili (English language)[1]Silimiinsili nyɛla West Germanic balli shɛli din be Indo-European balli daŋ ni ka bɛ booni ninvuɣ' shɛba ban yɛri lala balli ŋɔ Anglophones, di daa pilli la England zaŋ n-ti Great Britain.[2][3][4]Ninvuɣ' so yuli bɛ ni zaŋ n-ti balli ŋɔ nyɛ Angles, Germani ninvuɣ shɛba ban daa yi labi Britain ninvuɣ' yino.

Silimiinsili nyɛla bal' shɛli niriba pam ni yɛri dunia zaa, di daa na nyɛla balli shɛli British Empire mini United States nima ni tuui yɛra.[5] Silimiinsili nyɛ din pahiri ata balli shɛŋa niriba pam ni yɛra bahindila Mandarin Chinese mini Spanish nyaaŋa;[6] Di ni lahi nyɛ balli shɛli din pahiri ayi niriba ni bɔhim balli shɛŋa ni duniya zaa ka ban bɔhin li ŋɔ gari balli ŋɔ bilichininima.

Silimiinsili nyɛla balli shɛli bee di nyɛla din pahi balli shɛŋa ni tiŋgbana pam ni saɣi n-ti ka yɛra kamani India, Ireland n-ti pahi Canada). Tiŋgbani shɛŋa ni di ni nyɛ balli shɛli bɛ ni yɛri gari ballli kam kamani United States mini United Kingdom.[7] Di nyɛla din pahi balla zaŋ n-ti United Nations, European Union n-ti pahi tiŋduya tiŋgbani shɛŋa. Di lahi nyɛla din leei de facto lingua franca zaŋ n-ti tabibi, tiŋduya dabiligu niŋbu, binyɛra laasabu malibu, diɛma diɛmbu shee n-ti pahi pohim zuɣu .[8] Ninvuɣ shɛba ban yɛri silimiinsili Germanic balli ni nyɛla kɔbigi puuni vaabu pisopɔin ka lahabali daa yina wuhira ni ninvuɣ shɛba ban yɛri silimiinsili duniya zaa kalinli nyɛla din gari 2 billion.[9] Silimiinsili kurili nyɛla din laɣim West Germanic bachinima kumsim.[10][11][12]

Classification

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Anglic languages
  English
  Scots
within the Anglo-Frisian languages, which also include
  Frisian (West, North, Saterland);
within the North Sea Germanic languages, which also include
  Low German/Saxon;
within the West Germanic languages, which also include
  Dutch in Europe and Afrikaans in Africa
...... German (High):
  Central; in Lux.: Luxembourgish
  Upper
...... Yiddish
A family tree of the West Germanic language family

Silimiinsili nyɛla Indo-Europenima balli ka nyɛ din yina West Germanic laɣingu zaŋ n-ti Germanic balla.[13] Silimiinsili kurili din daa piligi Germanic balli ni mini "linguistic continuum" nyɛla balli shɛŋa din leei Anglic balli din be British Isles ka di gba leei Frisian balla puuni shɛli mini Low German /Low Saxon. Frisian balla ŋɔ mini Anglic balla nyɛ din leei Anglo-Frisian balla ka nyɛ din ŋmani siliminsili. Low German/Low Saxon gba nyɛla din ŋmani silimiinsili, Frisian balla mini Low German nyɛla bɛ ni laɣim shɛli leei North Sea Germanic balla amaa di laɣimbu ŋɔ nyɛla shɛba ni na ŋmɛri shɛli nangbankpeeni .[11] Silimiinsili kurili nyɛ din leei "Middle English" ka di gba leei Modern English.[14] Bachinima kumsim zaŋ n-ti Old mini Middle English gba nyɛla din leei Anglic balla kamani Scots [15] ka Fingallian Mini Yola balli zaŋ n-ti Ireland gba nyɛ din ŋmani taba.[16]

Taarihi

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Main article: History of English

Overview of history

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Walinginsim shɛli din daa be silimiinsili balli ni nyɛ bɛ ni daa booni shɛli silimiinsili kurili bee "Anglo-Saxon", di nyɛla din yina laɣingu zaŋ n-ti North Sea Germanic balli ni ka daa zaŋ li kpɛ Britain 5th century saha. Silimiinsili kurili balli ŋɔ nyɛla bɛ ni daa taɣi shɛli bela 8th mini 9th centuries. "middle English" nyɛla bɛ ni daa piligi shɛli 11th century, di daa piligimi Norman Conquest zaŋ n-ti England nyaaŋa ka bɛ daa zaŋ French kurili pahi silimiinsili zuɣu.[17][18]

Saha ŋɔ silimiinsili nyɛla bɛ ni daa piligi shɛli 15th century ka daa piligi li ŋɔ ni "Great Vowel shift", di nyaaŋa ka daa nyari di bachinima Latin mini Greek bachinima ni. Bɛ daa sabi balli ŋɔ niŋ King James Bible mini William Shakespeare tuma nima ni.[19][20] Ninvuɣ shɛba ban sabiri paari binyɛra zuɣu nyɛla ban sabiri silimiinsili.[21]

Three circles of English-speaking countries

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Percentage of London residents for whom English was their primary language as of 2021
Braj Kachru's Three Circles of English
Braj Kachru's Three Circles of English

Indianima balli bɔhinda Braj Kachru nyɛla ŋun daa waligi tiŋgbani shɛŋa ban yɛri silimiinsili "three circle models".[22]

Kachru yɛigu zaŋ jandi taarihi zaŋ n-ti silimiinsili wuligi kpɛ tiŋgbani koŋkoba. Lala "three circle model" ŋɔ nyɛla din taɣiri saha kam.[23]

Tiŋgbana shɛŋa ban nyɛ bilichini zaŋ n-ti silimiinsili balli nyɛ United States, Australia, Canada, Ireland n-ti pahi New Zealand, ni ka niriba pam yɛri silimiinsili ka South Africa niriba pirigili gba nyɛ ban yɛri silimiinsili. Tiŋgbani shɛŋa din nyɛ bilichininima zaŋ n-ti silimiinsili balli nyɛ din doli na ŋɔ United States (kamani 231 million),[24] United Kingdom (60 million),[25][26][27] Canada (19 million),[28] Australia (kamani 17 million),[29] South Africa (4.8 million),[30] Ireland(4.2 million) n-ti pahi New Zealand (3.7 million).[31] Lala tiŋgbana ŋɔ ni, bihibihi nyɛla ban bɔhindi silimiinsili bɛ lammba sani mini bɛ ʒilɛli ni nima sani.[32] Silimiinsili balli ŋɔ nyɛla din wuligi yina lala tiŋgbana ŋɔ ni.[23]

Vihigu nyɛla din wuhi ni tiŋgbani shɛŋa ban gba yɛri silimiinsili ŋɔ pam pahi ayi nyɛla ban gba paai 470 million zaŋ chaŋ 1 billion.[7] Balli bɔhindi baŋda David Crystal nyɛla ŋun yɛli ni ninvuɣ shɛba ban pa silimiinsili balli bilichinima zaŋ n-ti ninvuɣ shɛba ban nyɛ silimiinsili balli bilichinima nyɛla 3:1.[33] Kachru "three-circles model" ŋɔ wuhiya ni "outer circle" tiŋgbana nyɛ Philippines,[34] Jamaica,[35] India, Pakistan, Singapore,[36] Malaysia n-ti pahi Nigeria[37][38] Lala tiŋgbana ŋɔ pirigili nyɛla ban bɔhim silimiinsili ka tooi nyɛ ban yɛri li bɛ shikuruti ni, yiŋ, daabiligu shee.[39]

Pluricentric English

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Tɛmplet:Pie chart/sliceTɛmplet:Pie chart/sliceTɛmplet:Pie chart/sliceTɛmplet:Pie chart/sliceTɛmplet:Pie chart/sliceTɛmplet:Pie chart/sliceTɛmplet:Pie chart/slice

Pie chart showing the percentage of native English speakers living in "inner circle" English-speaking countries.[citation needed][when?] Native speakers are now substantially outnumbered worldwide by second-language speakers of English (not counted in this chart).

  US (64.3%)
  UK (16.7%)
  Canada (5.3%)
  Australia (4.7%)
  South Africa (1.3%)
  Ireland (1.1%)
  New Zealand (1%)
  Other (5.6%)

Silimiinsili nyɛla din ka yɛligu shee ka di wuhiri ni ka tiŋgbani yini koŋko zali di yunsibu zalikpana.[40][41][42][43] Niriba tooi mali silimiinsili wuligiri lahabali ka yɛri li tamdi di bolibu zalikpana zuɣu.[44] Amaa lahabalitiriba gba nyɛla ban sabiri bɛ lahabali tamdi silimiinsili zalikpana zuɣu ka di wuhiri ni lala zalikpana ŋɔ nyɛla din be tiŋgbani kam amaa ka tiŋgbani yini koŋko.[45]

Americanima nyɛla ban tooi wumdi British yɛlitɔɣa ka British nima gba nyɛ ban tooi wumdi Americanima yɛltɔɣa. Ninvuɣ shɛba zaa ban yɛri silimiinsili nyɛla ban tooi wumdi duniya zaa ladio mini telivisa zuɣu silimiinsili yɛltɔɣa.[46] [47]

Taarihi zaŋ jandi silimiinsili yɛriba tiŋgbana nyɛla din be Britain sambani ka nyɛ ban sɔŋ tiŋgbani shɛŋa ka bɛ gba baŋ silimiinsili balli tiŋgbana kamani South Africa, Australia n-ti pahi New Zealand.[48] Ninvuɣ shɛba ban chaŋ kpɛ United States ka pa British bilichinima nyɛla ban gba bɔhim silimiinsili. Saha ŋɔ United States salo ban gari bɛ kalinli pirigili nyɛla ban yɛri silimiinsili koŋko .[24][49]

  • Australia nyɛla ban ka balli yini koŋko.[50]
  • Canada, silimiinsili mini French nyɛ bɛ ni yɛri balli shɛŋa .[51][52] Silimiinsili nyɛla balli shɛli koŋko tiŋgbani shɛŋa ni amaa Quebec's nima zaa nyɛla ban yɛri French.[53]
  • Silimiinsili nyɛ balli shɛli din pahi ayi Irelandnima ni yɛri balli shɛŋa pam ni ka Irish nyɛ tuuli balli shɛli bɛ ni yɛra ni.[54]
  • New Zealand nyɛ luɣishɛli niriba pam ni yɛri silimiinsili tiŋgbani shɛli, di balla ayi shɛŋa din pahi ka sokam yɛri nyɛ Māori[55] mini New Zealand buɣisibu balli.[56]
  • United Kingdom nima nyɛla ban ka balli yini shɛli bɛ ni saɣi n-ti ka sokam yɛra. Wales mini Northern Ireland, silimiinsili nyɛ balli shɛli bɛ ni yɛri pahiri Welsh[57] mini Irish. [58] Scotland mini England gba nyɛla ban ka balli yini shɛli sokam ni saɣi n-ti ka yɛra.
  • United States gba nyɛla ban ka balli yini shɛli sokam ni saɣi n-ti ka yɛra ni bɛ tiŋ'kara ni .[59][60] Silimiinsili nyɛla balli yini shɛli sokam ni saɣi n-ti shɛli bee ka bɛ yɛra tiŋgbani maa yaɣa pihita ni ayi ni.[61]

English as a global language

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Main article: English as a lingua franca
See also: Foreign-language influences in English and Study of global communication
Countries in which English language is a mandatory or an optional subject[62]
  English is a mandatory subject
  English is an optional subject
  No data
English Proficiency Index by country as of 2014[63]
  Very high proficiency (80–100%)
  High proficiency (60–80%)
  Moderate proficiency (40–60%)
  Low proficiency (20–40%)
  Very low proficiency (0.1–20%)
  No data

Silimiinsili balli nyɛla balli shɛli zaŋ n-ti silimin bilichinima.[64][65] Silimiinsili nyɛla din wuligi kpɛ tiŋgbani kam ka niriba pam tooi yɛri bɛ tiŋgbana ni mini tiŋduya fiila dibu ni. Niriba pam nyɛla ban bɔhim silimiinsili balli ŋɔ.[66] Niriba pam ban yɛri silimiinsili Afirika nyɛla ban pahi "Afro-Saxon" balli ni ka di nyɛ din zaŋ Afirika tiŋgbana laɣim taba ka bɛ zaa wumdi taba yɛltɔɣa.[67]

Maŋsulinsi deebu British Empire sani bin din gbaai yuuni 1950s mini yuuni 1960s, lala tiŋgbana ŋɔ nyɛla ban daa bi zaɣisi silimiinsili amaa ka daa kuli tuɣi silimiinsili ŋɔ bɔhimbu mini zaŋ tum tuma maŋsulinsi deebu nyaaŋa.[68][69][70]Ŋmahinli kamani Indianima nyɛla ban daa baŋ silimiinsili saha shɛli gbaŋpiɛlla ni daa gbubi ba hali ni zuŋɔ silimiinsili nyɛla balli shɛli sokam ni saɣi n-ti ka yɛri India.[71] Silimiinsili lahi nyɛ balli shɛli din niŋ bayana pohim zuɣu mini sabibu ni ka silimiinsili balli buku shɛŋa Indianima ni sabi zaŋ wuhi salo nyɛ din dɔ buta zuɣu duniya zaa bahindila US mini UK.[72] Din pahira, ka silimiinsili nyɛ tuuli balli zaŋ n-ti India amaa ka salo pam nyɛ ban yɛri li ka kɔbigi puuni vaabu dibaa anu nyɛ ban ni tooi yɛlli viɛnyɛla India.[73][74] David Crystal nyɛla ŋun daa yɛlli yɛltɔɣa yuuni 2004 wuhiri ni ti yi zaŋ ninvuɣ shɛba ban nyɛ silimiinsili bilichinima mini ban pa di bilichinima ka yɛri silimiinsili India kalinli yi laɣim taba nyɛla din gari tiŋgbani kam duniya zaa,[75] amaa ninvuɣ shɛba ban nyɛ ban ni tooi yɛlli silimiinsili India kalinli nyɛla niriba ni bɛ tooi mi shɛli ka baŋdiba pam nyɛ ban yɛlli ni United States nyɛla din mali ninvuɣ shɛba ban yɛri silimiinsili gari India.[76]

Saha ŋɔ silimiinsili, nyɛla bɛ ni buɣisiri shɛli saha shɛŋa duniya zaa tuuli "lingua franca",[77][78] di ni lahi nyɛ tuuli duniya zaa balli.[79][80] Silimiinsili nyɛ balli shɛli lahabalitiriba ni sabiri shɛli wuhiri salo, di ni ka bɛ lahi tooi mali sabiri niŋdi bukunima wuhiri salo, tiŋduya fiila dibu, tabibi yɛltɔɣa zaŋ wuhi salo ni gba silimiinsili ni ka bɛ tooi sabiri li n-ti pahi tiŋduya dabiligu shee di ni ka bɛ yɛra.[80] Silimiinsili nyɛla balli shɛli tiŋgbani kam din be duniya zaa ni yɛra.[81] Seaspeak mini Airspeak nyɛla tiŋduya balla zaŋ n-ti ninvuɣ shɛba ban chani kom ni [82] mini aleepili ni bee pohim zuɣu.[83] Silimiinsili nyɛla balli shɛli niriba ni daa bɛ tooi yunsiri shɛli French mini German tabibi vihisi ni amaa silimiinsili ka bɛ pa mali niŋdi bɛ binshɛɣu kam saha ŋɔ.[84] Di nyɛla balli shɛli niriba pam ni daa bɛ yɛri French yuuni 1919.[85] Saha shɛli bɛ ni daa piligi United Nations saha shɛli duniya zaa tɔbu din pahiri ayi ni daa naai, silimiinsili nyɛla din daa na bi niŋ bayana[86] amaa saha ŋɔ di ni pa nyɛ balli shɛli duniya zaa ni yɛra tiŋduya daabilim shee.[87] Di nyɛla din pahi United Nations balla ayobu shɛŋa sokam ni yɛra la puuni.[88]

Tiŋduya laɣinsi kamani European Free Trade Association, Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN),[89] mini Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) nyɛla ban yɛri silimiinsili bɛ laɣinsi hali ni ninvuɣ shɛba ban be di ni maa gba yi pa silimiinsili bilichinima. Ka European Union (EU) nyɛ ban tiri niriba soli ka bɛ piiri tiŋgbani maa ni balli yini yɛra bɛ laɣinsi ni.[90]

Fonoloji

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Siliminsili bachinima ni booni shɛm mini di ni kumdi shɛm malila waliginsim zuliya kam zilinli zuɣu, amaa ka di lee bi tooi chirimdi di alizam dibu. Bachinima bolibu taɣirila bachinima kumsi (i.e. yɛltɔɣa kumsim din tiri di gbunni waliginsim), ni bachinima ŋmebu kumsim bɔlibu.[91] Lahabali ŋɔ buɣisirila bachinima ni kumdi shɛm United Kingdom mini United States.

Bachinima dalima din tum tuma gbunni ŋɔ yimina "International Phonetic Alphabet" (IPA) ni.[92][93][94]

Konsonantinima

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Siliminsili konsonantinima bachinima ŋmebu pam malila bachi pishi ni anahi (bee pshi ni ayɔbu /x/ n-ti pahi (/ʔ/)) . Konsonantinima nambu din doli ŋɔ na nyɛla California Silimisili ni saɣiti shɛli,[95] n-ti pahi RP ni zani ti shɛli.[96]

Konsonantinima bachinima ŋmebu
Bilabial Labiodental Dental Alveolar Post-
alveolar		 Palatal Velar Glottal
Nasal m n ŋ*
Plosive p b t d k ɡ (ʔ)
Affricate tʃ dʒ
Fricative f v θ ð s z ʃ ʒ (x) h
Approximant Central ɹ** j w
Lateral l

* The sound /ŋ/ can only occur as a coda.

** Conventionally transcribed /r/

Teebuli maa puuni, binyɛra kamani (zanibu bihi) yi ti laɣim taba, kamani /p b/, /tʃ dʒ/, ni /s z/, tuuli dini maa m-mali yaa ka di paya maa nyɛ zaɣ'gbariŋ. Bachinima kamani /p tʃ s/ boonimi n-darigiri jila ka vuhim mi ʒiri bachi gbarima, kamani /b dʒ z/, ka zooi ka di ka kukoli. Bachi gbarima tooi yirimina bachinima tuuli bɔlibu ni bela, ka yirina viɛyɛla vaawulinima sunsuuni. Bachinima kamani /p/ malila nahingban shɛŋa dabam zuliya shɛŋa ni: Di boonimi ni vuhim vuhibahina [pʰ] di yi ti yina di o bachinima din kahim ni, amaa ka biu tuhiri vuhim saha shɛŋa, ka bɛ tooi zooi ka di bahiri [p̚] bee [ʔp] di bahigu. Bachi gansi ni, Bachin din kani na ka tiri bachi din mali yaa bi darigira: dini n-nyɛ 'nip" nyɛla din mali vaawuli din bi darigira (bachinma ŋmebu ni, amaa ka bachinima pebu ni) n-gari nib [nɪˑb̥] (Lihimi gbunni ŋɔ).[97]

  • zanibu bihi din ka yaa: bin [b̥ɪˑn], about [əˈbaʊt], nib [nɪˑb̥]
  • Zanibu bihi din mali yaa: pin [pʰɪn]; spin [spɪn]; happy [ˈhæpi]; nip [nɪp̚] or [nɪʔp]

RP puuni, bachinima din nyɛt /l/, malila pubu buyi: din ne [l], kamani neesim ni, ni din mali zimsim [ɫ], kamani din pali ni.[98] GA malila zimsim l luɣa pam ni.[99]

  • din ne l: RP light [laɪt]
  • din mali zimsim l: RP and GA full [fʊɫ], GA light [ɫaɪt]

Nyeeni konsonantinima zaa (koma /l, r/ ni nyevoya ni /m, n, ŋ/) yirimina bachinma din ka kumsim ni, ka doli taba di yi ti kanina konsonantinima bahigu.[100]

  • nyevoya ni bachinima din ka kumsi: "clay" [kl̥eɪ̯]; "snow" RP [sn̥əʊ̯], GA [sn̥oʊ̯]
  • nyevoya ni bachinima din pe taba: "paddle" [ˈpad.l̩], "button" [ˈbʌt.n̩]

Vaawulinima

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Main article: English phonology § Vowels
Closing diphthongs
RP GA Word
eɪ bay
əʊ oʊ road
aɪ cry
aʊ cow
ɔɪ boy
Centring diphthongs
RP GA Word
ɪə ɪɹ peer
eə ɛɹ pair
ʊə ʊɹ poor
Monophthongs
RP GA Word
iː i need
ɪ bid
e ɛ bed
æ back
ɑː ɑ bra
ɒ box
ɔ, ɑ cloth
ɔː paw
uː u food
ʊ good
ʌ but
ɜː ɜɹ bird
ə comma

Vaawulinima bolibu malila waliginsim zuliyanima sunsuuni ka ka di nyɛ din yi polo yɛltɔɣa ni zaŋ chaŋ nira ni yina zuliya shɛli ni. Teebuli din doli ŋɔ na kalila vaawulinima ŋmebu (RP) mini (GA) ni, ni bachinma shɛhira shɛŋa ni di ni be bala ni. Vaawulinima maa dalim mi ni dalima din yina "International Phonetic Alphabet" ni; din zaŋ ti RP nyɛla din za di naba zuɣu British bachinma kahigibu kundunima ni.[101]

RP puuni, vaawuli waɣilim malila di ŋmebu; Vaawuli waɣila dalindimi ni ⟨ː⟩ teebuli din do zuɣusaa ŋɔ ni, kamani vaawuni zaŋ ti "need" [niːd] zaŋ dalim "bid" [bɪd]. GA puuni, vaawuli waɣilim bi za yim.

RP mini GA ni zaa, vaawuli bachinma ŋmebu niŋdi la zaɣi jia pɔi ni ni konsonatinima din mali yaa, kamani /t tʃ f/, amaaa ka ni konsonantinima din ka yaa kamani /d dʒ v/ bee: kamani, vaawulinima din be "rich" [rɪtʃ], "neat" [nit], mini "safe" [seɪ̯f] ni nyɛla din ji ni vaawulinima din be "ridge" [rɪˑdʒ], "need" [niˑd], n-ti pahi "save" [seˑɪ̯v] ni, ni "light" [laɪ̯t] vaawuli nyɛla din ji n-gari "lie" [laˑɪ̯]. Ka di daliri nyɛla vaawulinima din ka yaa ka kumsi bachinima bahigu, vaawuli kumsi kpala talahi ni wuhi vaawuli din mali yaa bee din ka yaa.[102]

Vaawuli din nyɛ /ə/ yirimina bachinma din bi kahim ni ka tooi yooi pam zaashe shɛŋa ni.[103][104] Zuliya shɛŋa bi kahindi /ɪ/ mini /ə/ zaashe shɛŋa ni, kamani "rabbit" mini "abbot" bachi kumsim taba dolibu ni.[105] GA /ɜr/ mini /ər/nyɛla "r-coloured vowel" [ɚ], kamani "further" ni [ˈfɚðɚ] (bachi ŋmebu pebu ni /ˈfɜrðər/), RP ni bahi shɛli ka di nyɛ [ˈfəːðə] (bachi ŋmebu /ˈfɜːðə/).[106]

Phonotactics

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Siliminsili pebu chanimi ni pebu soli din nyɛ vaawuli kumsi. Pebu piligu mini di bahigu nyɛla suhuyurilim. Di ni tooi piligi ni konsonantinima kumsim dibaa ata, kamani "sprint" /sprɪnt/ ni, ka naai ni dibaa anu, kamani "angsts" /aŋksts/ zuliya shɛŋa ni. Lala dini ŋɔ tila Silimisili pebu din nyɛ, (CCC)V(CCCCC), ka C zaniti konsonanti ka V zaniti vaawuli; bachi din nyɛ "strengths" /strɛŋkθs/ nyɛla din mali yɛligola Siliminsili ni.[107]

Stress, rhythm and intonation

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Kahimbu nyɛla din kpa talahi Siliminsili ni. Bachi shɛŋ kahindi mi, ka shɛŋa mi bi kahinda. Kahimbu laɣindila waɣilim, darigibu, vaawuli darija, ka taɣiri kumsim saha shɛŋa. Bachi kahinda boonimi niŋdi waɣiliga gari bachinima di bi kahim, ka vaawulinima din be bachinima din bi kahim ni filimda ka vaawulinima din be din kahim ni i ka lala.[108] Bachi shɛŋa ni, di bahi bahindi bachinima din tuma ji ni bachiniŋda di buɣisiri ni kamani "can", malila di zaɣ'gbarima mini din mali yaa di yi niŋ ka di ti za kahimbu bee din bi kahim zaani.

Bachinma kahimbu Siliminsili ni malila di ni ŋmeri shɛm, ka bachi shɛŋa waligibu yirina di kahimbu ni. Kamani ŋmahinli, bachi din nyɛ "contract" kahimla tuuli (/ˈkɒntrækt/ KON-trakt) di yi ti zani bachinamdili zaani, amaa bahigu ni (/kənˈtrækt/ kən-TRAKT) gbunni balibu ni (kamani shɛhira, "n-filim galisim") di yi ti zani bachinamdili zaani.[109][110][111][112]

Bachinima kum doli taba, Siliminsili nyɛla bɛ ni buɣisi shɛli bachinma-saha kahimbu balli, ka di wuhiri ni saha din be bachinima kahimbu sunsuuni nyɛla yim.[113] Bachi kahinda bɔlibu darigirimi, amaa bachinma din bi kahim bi darigira. Vaawulinima din be bachinma din bi kahim ni gba bi darigi, ka vaawuli jiya ŋmaabu filimdi di zaŋ maŋ'tali: Vaawuli filimbu.[114]

Regional variation

[mali niŋ | mali mi di yibu sheena n-niŋ]
Varieties of Standard English and their features[115]
Phonological
features		 United
States		 Canada Republic
of Ireland		 Northern
Ireland		 Scotland England Wales South
Africa		 Australia New
Zealand
father–bother merger yes yes
/ɒ/ is unrounded yes yes yes
/ɜːr/ is pronounced [ɚ] yes yes yes yes
cot–caught merger possibly yes possibly yes yes
fool–full merger yes yes
/t, d/ flapping yes yes possibly often rarely rarely rarely rarely yes often
trap–bath split possibly possibly often yes yes often yes
non-rhotic (/r/-dropping after vowels) yes yes yes yes yes
close vowels for /æ, ɛ/ yes yes yes
/l/ can always be pronounced [ɫ] yes yes yes yes yes yes
/ɑː/ is fronted before /r/ possibly possibly yes yes
Dialects and low vowels
Lexical set RP GA Can Sound change
THOUGHT /ɔː/ /ɔ/ or /ɑ/ /ɑ/ cot–caught merger
CLOTH /ɒ/ lot–cloth split
LOT /ɑ/ father–bother merger
PALM /ɑː/
BATH /æ/ /æ/ trap–bath split
TRAP /æ/

Britain and Ireland

[mali niŋ | mali mi di yibu sheena n-niŋ]
See also: English language in England, Estuary English, English language in Northern England, Welsh English, Scottish English, Scots language, Ulster English, and Hiberno-English
A map showing the main dialect regions in the United Kingdom and Ireland

Silimiinsili nyɛla balli shɛli din yɛra England yuun tuhiyini ni kɔbishi din gari maa ka di nyɛ din wuhiri lala yaɣili ŋɔ silimiinsili yaa ni nyɛ shɛm.[116]United Kingdom nyɛla ban daa tuui baŋ bachinima ŋɔ bolibu shikuru baŋda so ŋun daa yina England. "Received pronunciation", bɛ ni lahi mi shɛli ( BBC English) nyɛla din yɛligi ka di nyɛla di ni niŋ ka niriba sabiri pohim zuɣu la. Bin din gbaai yuuni 1950-61, vihigu niŋbu zaŋ n-ti silimiinsili balli nyɛla din daa mali booni koŋkoba mini bachinima kumsim koŋkoba zaŋ n-ti tiŋgbani kam.[117]

North America

[mali niŋ | mali mi di yibu sheena n-niŋ]
Main articles: American English, General American English, Southern American English, African-American Vernacular English, Canadian English, and Atlantic Canadian English
Percentage of Americans aged 5+ speaking English at home in each public usage microdata area (PUMA) of the 50 states, Washington, D.C. and Puerto Rico. according to the 2016–2021 five-year American Community Survey
Rhoticity dominates in North American English, but The Atlas of North American English found over 50% non-rhoticity with at least one local speaker in each US metropolitan area (designated with a red dot) and non-rhotic African-American Vernacular English pronunciations found primarily among African Americans regardless of location.
Tɛmplet:Map of Canadian English

Pirinla balla pam nyɛla ban daa laɣim taba pɔi ni maŋsulinsi nima deebu zuɣu, North America silimiinsili n-daa na nyɛ balli shɛli niriba pam ni yɛra ti yi yɛn zaŋ li maɣisi British balli. Amaa baŋdiba pam nyɛla ban bɛ saɣi n-ti lala yɛligu. Din bɔŋɔ nyɛla balli shɛli din wali wali bela kamani Africanima Americanima silimiinsili, Chicano silimiinsili, Cajun silimiinsili bee Newfoundland silimiinsili .[118] Americanima silimiinsili balli ŋɔ nyɛla din yɛligi gili tiŋduya amaa ka di yɛligu leei booi di tiŋgbani ni [119][120] amaa ka bɛ leei laɣim di zaa booni li General American silimiinsili (GA) amaa ka waliginsim bela leei be di ni hali Americanima maŋmaŋ sunsuun, di shɛŋa nyɛ Midland mini Western Amerivan silimiinsili.[121][122][123][124]

Australia and New Zealand

[mali niŋ | mali mi di yibu sheena n-niŋ]
Main articles: Australian English and New Zealand English

Tum yuuni 1788, silimiinsili nyɛla balli bɛ ni daa pun yɛra Oceania ka balli shɛli bɛ ni daa yɛra pam daa nyɛ Australian silimiinsili. New Zealand silimiinsili nyɛla din gba waligi bela.[125] Australian mini New Zealand silimiinsili nyɛla ŋmani taba amaa ka di nahingbana dibaa ashɛm ŋɔ nyɛ di walinginsim, ti yi lihi South Africanima silimiinsili mini South East England gba nyɛla din ŋmani taba. Australian mini New Zealand silimiinsili bachinima nyɛla din nyɛ. Australian silimiinsili bachinima zalikpana nyɛla din lu zahim ni British mini American silimiinsili.[126][127] New Zealand siliminsili nyɛla din mali tooni Vaawulinima ka di mali yaa gari Australian silimiinsili.[128][129][130]

Southeast Asia

[mali niŋ | mali mi di yibu sheena n-niŋ]
Main articles: Southeast Asian English, Singapore English, Philippine English, Malaysian English, and Brunei English

Philippines nima daa tuumi baŋ silimiinsili yuuni 1762 din daa niŋ ka British deei Manila zaa Seven Years tɔbu saha. Silimiinsili nyɛla din anfaani daa pahi ka yɛligi saha shɛli Americanima ni daa gbubi ba bin din gbaai yuuni 1898 mini yuuni 1946 sunsuun ka nyɛ din leei balli shɛli tiŋgbani maa zaa ni saɣi n-ti ka yɛra. Zuŋɔ, silimiinsili nyɛla balli bɛ ni yɛra Philippines luɣilikam, di ni ka bɛ yɛra ka sabiri pohim zuɣu, dabiligu niŋbu shee ni yaɣa shɛŋa din pahi .[131] Siliminsili yɛlibu tiŋgbani ŋɔ ni nyɛla din be luɣilikam di gbaai bahindi Filipinos ban yina Manila ka bɛ shɛba gba nyɛ ban yɛra Taglish.[132]



Lihimi m-pahi

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Kundivihira

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Bibliography

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Tɛmplet:Library resources box

Tɛmplet:Description of English

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