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Jim Crow laws

Diyila Dagbani Wikipedia
Jim Crow laws
Yaɣ shelilaw Mali niŋ
Pahi laJim Crow Era Mali niŋ
Facet ofracial segregation in the United States Mali niŋ
Siɣili-lana yuliJim Crow Mali niŋ
TiŋaAmerica Mali niŋ
Sariyadiri baŋsimAmerica Mali niŋ
Pilibu saha1870s Mali niŋ
Naabu saha1965 Mali niŋ
Mali niyaracial segregation Mali niŋ

Jim Crow daansi nyɛla tiŋgbani mini tiŋkpansi daansi din pili Southern United States ni 19th century bahigu mini 20th century piligu ka daa kpaŋsi zuliya kpɛɣu niŋbu, "Jim Crow" nyɛla yɛltɔɣa din be African American nima ni.[1] Jim Crow daansi bahigu daa nyɛla bɛ ni daa ŋmaai shɛli yuuni 1965.[2] Zuliya kpɛɣu niŋbu daansi daa be United States tiŋgbani shɛŋa ni, hali ni di ni daa niŋ ka tiŋgbani shɛŋa din pa South daa ŋmaai zuliya kpɛɣu niŋbu daansi din nyɛ din yɛn dɛmdi niriba ka bɛ baŋ bɛ ni yɛn niŋ shɛm ni bɛ ku tooi vooti.[3][4] Southern laws were enacted by white-dominated state legislatures (Redeemers) to disenfranchise and remove political and economic gains made by African Americans during the Reconstruction era.[5] Zuliya kpɛɣu niŋbu daa lahi nyɛla din daa kpaŋsi Lily-white movement.[6] Jim Crow daansi daa kpaŋsi zuliya kpɛɣu niŋbu zaa ni public facilities din be former Confederate States of America ni tiŋgbani shɛŋa, ka di daa pili 1870s. Jim Crow daansi daa nyɛla bɛ ni daa saɣi ti shɛli yuuni 1896 ni Plessy v. Ferguson yɛltɔɣa, ka Supreme Court daa yɛli ni "separate but equal" daansi nyɛla din yɛn dɛmdi niriba ka bɛ baŋ bɛ ni yɛn niŋ shɛm ni bɛ ku tooi vooti.[7][8] Public education daa nyɛla din daa kpɛɣu niŋbu ni di ni daa niŋ ka di daa pili Civil War ni yuuni 1861–1865. Daansi din daa pahi daa nyɛla din daa yɛn taɣi African Americans nima vooti soli South ni ka daa yihi ba representative government. Hali ni di ni daa niŋ ka "equal" daansi daa nyɛla din yɛn dɛmdi niriba ka bɛ baŋ bɛ ni yɛn niŋ shɛm ni bɛ ku tooi vooti, African Americans nima daansi daa nyɛla din daa bi ŋmani shɛli white Americans nima daansi; din daa niŋ ka di daa ka facilities zaŋ ti black niriba ka bɛ tooi mali shɛli.[7][8][9] National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) daa nyɛla ban daa pili kpɛɣu niŋbu ŋɔ ni bɛ ni daa yɛn niŋ shɛm zaŋ chaŋ Jim Crow daansi polo, n-ti pahi "separate but equal" daansi. Yuuni 1954, Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka yɛltɔɣa daa nyɛla din daa yɛli ni public schools (state-sponsored) kpɛɣu niŋbu nyɛla din pa niŋ talahi.[10][11][12] Tiŋgbani shɛŋa ni, di daa nyɛla din daa bi yɛn niŋ ka bɛ tooi zaŋ li niŋ niriba ni yuuni shɛli ni, ka Warren Court daa lahi yɛli ni Jim Crow daansi nyɛla din pa niŋ talahi yɛltɔɣa shɛŋa ni kamani Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States (1964).[13] Jim Crow daansi zaa daa nyɛla bɛ ni daa ŋmaai shɛli Civil Rights Act of 1964 mini Voting Rights Act of 1965. Southern state anti-miscegenation laws daa nyɛla bɛ ni daa ŋmaai shɛli yuuni 1967 ni Loving v. Virginia yɛltɔɣa.

Di zani niŋbu daa naai

[mali niŋ | mali mi di yibu sheena n-niŋ]
President Johnson ŋmɛ gbana niŋ Civil Rights Act of 1964.

Kpɛɣu niŋbu daa naai la dabisili shɛli Congress ni daa ŋmaai Southern filibuster ni Civil Rights Act of 1964 mini Voting Rights Act of 1965. Yɛltɔɣa shɛŋa daa nyɛla din daa laɣim taba ka che ka ŋɔ maa niŋ. Supreme Court daa nyɛla ban daa pili li ni Brown v. Board of Education (1954), ka daa yɛli ni public schools kpɛɣu niŋbu nyɛla din pa niŋ talahi. Di daa nyɛla din daa niŋ katariŋ Northern mini border states, amaa ka daa bi niŋ Southern ni Massive Resistance nima ni daa kpaŋsi shɛm. Southern liberals, ban daa yɛli ni bɛ yɛn niŋ shɛm ka di bi saɣim, daa nyɛla bɛ ni daa ŋmɛri shɛba zuɣu ni bɛ ku tooi nyaɣisi niriba maa zaa ka bɛ daa bi tooi mali anfaani shɛli polo. Civil rights movement daa nyɛla din daa mali anfaani pam, Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) n-daa nyɛ ban daa kpaŋsi li ka Martin Luther King Jr. nyɛ ŋun daa nyɛ di kpɛma. Di daa nyɛla din daa yina ti zani NAACP zaani ka di daa nyɛ ban daa kpaŋsi li pam. King daa nyɛla ŋun daa kpaŋsi ka niriba pam yina ti toɣisi ba ni bɛ ku tooi nyaɣisi niriba maa zaa ka di daa nyɛla din daa mali anfaani pam television ni. SCLC, niriba ban daa be shikuru ni ban daa kpaŋsi li mini tiŋkpansi nima ban daa kpaŋsi li daa nyɛla ban daa kpaŋsi ka niriba pam yina ti toɣisi ba Southern zaa. National attention daa nyɛla din daa kuli be Birmingham, Alabama, ka niriba maa daa toɣisi ba Commissioner of Public Safety Bull Connor. Connor daa nyɛla ŋun daa gbaai niriba 900 dabisili yini. Dabaa ayi nyaaŋa, Connor daa nyɛla ŋun daa yihi billy clubs, police dogs, ni high-pressure water hoses ni bɛ ku tooi nyaɣisi niriba maa zaa ka di daa nyɛla din daa mali anfaani pam niriba maa zaa shee. Di daa nyɛla din daa bi nyaɣisi niriba maa zaa ka bɛ daa yɛli ni bɛ yɛn zaŋ federal troops ni bɛ ku tooi laɣim niriba maa zaa Birmingham. Di daa nyɛla din daa niŋ ka niriba maa zaa daa laɣim taba ka bɛ daa yɛli ni bɛ yɛn yihi kpɛɣu niŋbu library, golf courses, ni city facilities din be niriba maa zaa shee. Yuuni 1963, niriba 800 daa nyɛla ban daa kpaŋsi ka bɛ yina ti toɣisi ba southern cities mini towns, ka niriba 100,000 daa yina ti toɣisi ba, ka niriba 15,000 daa nyɛ ban daa gbaai. Alabama yuuni 1963, Governor George Wallace daa nyɛla ŋun daa kpaŋsi ka niriba maa zaa yina ti toɣisi ba ka bɛ daa yɛli ni bɛ yɛn zaŋ niriba ayi ŋɔ n-niŋ University of Alabama. Kennedy daa nyɛla ŋun daa yɛli ni bɛ yɛn zaŋ civil rights bill n-ti Congress, ka daa yɛli Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy ni o yɛn zaŋ federal lawsuits n-ti shikuru shɛŋa din daa kpɛɣu niŋbu ni, ka daa yɛli ni bɛ yɛn yihi federal funds n-ti shɛŋa din daa kpɛɣu niŋbu ni. Martin Luther King daa nyɛla ŋun daa kpaŋsi ka niriba 200,000 yina ti toɣisi ba Lincoln Memorial, ka di daa nyɛla niriba ban daa kuli yina ti toɣisi ba tiŋgbani ŋɔ ni. Kennedy administration daa nyɛla ban daa kpaŋsi civil rights movement, amaa ka southern congressmen daa nyɛ ban daa kuli ʒiri li. Kennedy daa nyɛla ŋun daa kpibu, ka President Lyndon B. Johnson daa yɛli ni bɛ yɛn ŋmaai Kennedy's civil rights legislation ka di nyɛla din yɛn gbubi Kennedy. Johnson daa nyɛla ŋun daa kpaŋsi ka niriba maa zaa laɣim taba ka bɛ daa ŋmaai Civil Rights Act of 1964. Civil Rights Act of 1964 daa nyɛla din daa kpaŋsi niriba maa zaa ka bɛ yɛn tooi chaŋ luɣ'shɛŋa kamani restaurants mini places of amusement, ka daa yɛli ni bɛ yɛn tooi zaŋ federal funds n-ti shɛŋa din daa kpɛɣu niŋbu ni. Di daa lahi yɛli ni racial, religious mini gender discrimination nyɛla din pa niŋ talahi zaŋ chaŋ businesses din mali niriba 25 mini apartment houses. South daa nyɛla din daa bi saɣi ti, amaa ka di daa niŋ ka President Johnson daa ŋmɛ gbana niŋ Civil Rights Act of 1964, di daa nyɛla din daa kuli yina ti saɣi ti niriba maa zaa shee. Yuuni 1965, unprovoked attack daa nyɛla din daa niŋ ka niriba maa zaa daa yina ti toɣisi ba Alabama marchers ka bɛ daa chaŋ Edmund Pettus Bridge ni bɛ yɛn chaŋ Montgomery, ka di daa nyɛla din daa kpaŋsi President mini Congress ka bɛ ŋmaai Voting Rights Act. Voting Rights Act of 1965 daa nyɛla din daa yɛli ni state barriers to voting nyɛla din pa niŋ talahi zaŋ chaŋ federal, state mini local elections. Di daa lahi yɛli ni federal oversight mini monitoring nyɛla din yɛn niŋ zaŋ chaŋ counties din mali ninvuɣ'shɛba ban daa pun be ni. Martin Luther King daa nyɛla ŋun daa pili Poor People's Campaign. O daa nyɛla ŋun daa yɛli ni Economic Bills of Rights nyɛla din yɛn niŋ ka niriba maa zaa nyaɣisi. Yuuni 2013, Roberts Court, daa nyɛla ban daa yɛli ni Shelby County v. Holder, ni Southern states ku lahi mali federal approval zaŋ chaŋ voting policies polo. Tiŋgbani shɛŋa daa nyɛla din daa yɛli ni bɛ yɛn yihi voting access daansi.

Kpɛɣu niŋbu ni di nyaaŋa

[mali niŋ | mali mi di yibu sheena n-niŋ]

Ninvuɣ'shɛba ban nyɛla ban be America niŋbuɣim tɔɣa

[mali niŋ | mali mi di yibu sheena n-niŋ]
An African American man drinking at a "colored" drinking fountain in a streetcar terminal in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, 1939

Kpɛɣu niŋbu daa nyɛla din daa kpaŋsi Great Migration yuuni 20th century piligu ha. Di daa nyɛla din daa kpaŋsi niriba pam ka bɛ yina ti ʒini tiŋ'shɛŋa din be North, Midwest, mini West polo ni bɛ nya bɛ nyɛvuli ni nyɛ shɛm. Ninvuɣ'shɛba ban nyɛla ban be America niŋbuɣim tɔɣa daa nyɛla ban daa kuli nyɛri ʒiri pam zaŋ chaŋ sports polo, ka daa nyɛ ban daa kuli yina ti toɣisi ba. Boxers Jack Johnson mini Joe Louis (ka niriba ayi ŋɔ daa nyɛ world heavyweight boxing champions) mini track and field athlete Jesse Owens (Ŋun daa di kpɛɣu dibaa anahi 1936 Summer Olympics Berlin) daa nyɛla ban daa kuli nyɛri pam ni bɛ ni daa niŋ shɛm. Baseball puuni, color line din daa kpa yuuni 1880s daa nyɛla din daa kuli yɛli ni niriba shɛba ban nyɛla ban be America ku tooi ŋmɛ major leagues, ka daa kpaŋsi Negro leagues din daa mali ninvuɣ'shɛba ban daa nyɛri pam. Kpɛɣu shɛli din daa niŋ ka niriba maa zaa yina ti nya shɛli daa nyɛla yuuni 1947, Jackie Robinson daa nyɛla ŋun daa nyɛ ŋun daa tuui ŋmɛ Major League Baseball; o daa nyɛla ŋun daa kuli yina ti nya shɛli. Baseball teams daa nyɛla din daa kuli yina ti laɣim taba ka bɛ daa ŋmɛri shɛli, ka daa nyɛla din daa kuli yina ti nya shɛli ka niriba shɛba ban nyɛla ban be America daa ŋmɛ Major Leagues yuuni 1960s.

Ninvuɣ'shɛba ban nyɛla bɛ ni dɔɣi shɛba mini ban nyɛla bɛ ni dɔɣi shɛba ka bɛ nyɛla ban be America niŋbuɣim tɔɣa

[mali niŋ | mali mi di yibu sheena n-niŋ]

Ninvuɣ'shɛba ban nyɛla bɛ ni dɔɣi shɛba mini ban nyɛla bɛ ni dɔɣi shɛba ka bɛ nyɛla ban be America niŋbuɣim tɔɣa daa nyɛla din daa kuli nyɛri ʒiri pam zaŋ chaŋ kpɛɣu niŋbu polo. Kpɛɣu shɛŋa din daa kuli nyɛri ʒiri pam daa nyɛla anti-miscegenation laws din daa kuli nyɛri ʒiri pam. Kpɛɣu shɛŋa din daa kuli nyɛri ʒiri pam daa bi nyɛla din daa kuli yina ti saɣi ti Civil Rights Act of 1964, amaa ka daa nyɛla din daa kuli yina ti nya shɛli ka U.S. Supreme Court (the Warren Court) daa yɛli ni di nyɛla din pa niŋ talahi Loving v. Virginia (1

Kpɛɣu niŋbu ni di nyaaŋa

[mali niŋ | mali mi di yibu sheena n-niŋ]

Ninvuɣ'shɛba ban nyɛla ban be America niŋbuɣim tɔɣa

[mali niŋ | mali mi di yibu sheena n-niŋ]
An African American man drinking at a "colored" drinking fountain in a streetcar terminal in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, 1939

Kpɛɣu niŋbu daa nyɛla din daa kpaŋsi Great Migration yuuni 20th century piligu ha. Di daa nyɛla din daa kpaŋsi niriba pam ka bɛ yina ti ʒini tiŋ'shɛŋa din be North, Midwest, mini West polo ni bɛ nya bɛ nyɛvuli ni nyɛ shɛm. Ninvuɣ'shɛba ban nyɛla ban be America niŋbuɣim tɔɣa daa nyɛla ban daa kuli nyɛri ʒiri pam zaŋ chaŋ sports polo, ka daa nyɛ ban daa kuli yina ti toɣisi ba. Boxers Jack Johnson mini Joe Louis (ka niriba ayi ŋɔ daa nyɛ world heavyweight boxing champions) mini track and field athlete Jesse Owens (Ŋun daa di kpɛɣu dibaa anahi 1936 Summer Olympics Berlin) daa nyɛla ban daa kuli nyɛri pam ni bɛ ni daa niŋ shɛm. Baseball puuni, color line din daa kpa yuuni 1880s daa nyɛla din daa kuli yɛli ni niriba shɛba ban nyɛla ban be America ku tooi ŋmɛ major leagues, ka daa kpaŋsi Negro leagues din daa mali ninvuɣ'shɛba ban daa nyɛri pam. Kpɛɣu shɛli din daa niŋ ka niriba maa zaa yina ti nya shɛli daa nyɛla yuuni 1947, Jackie Robinson daa nyɛla ŋun daa nyɛ ŋun daa tuui ŋmɛ Major League Baseball; o daa nyɛla ŋun daa kuli yina ti nya shɛli. Baseball teams daa nyɛla din daa kuli yina ti laɣim taba ka bɛ daa ŋmɛri shɛli, ka daa nyɛla din daa kuli yina ti nya shɛli ka niriba shɛba ban nyɛla ban be America daa ŋmɛ Major Leagues yuuni 1960s.[citation needed]

Ninvuɣ'shɛba ban nyɛla bɛ ni dɔɣi shɛba mini ban nyɛla bɛ ni dɔɣi shɛba ka bɛ nyɛla ban be America niŋbuɣim tɔɣa

[mali niŋ | mali mi di yibu sheena n-niŋ]

Ninvuɣ'shɛba ban nyɛla bɛ ni dɔɣi shɛba mini ban nyɛla bɛ ni dɔɣi shɛba ka bɛ nyɛla ban be America niŋbuɣim tɔɣa daa nyɛla din daa kuli nyɛri ʒiri pam zaŋ chaŋ kpɛɣu niŋbu polo. Kpɛɣu shɛŋa din daa kuli nyɛri ʒiri pam daa nyɛla anti-miscegenation laws din daa kuli nyɛri ʒiri pam. Kpɛɣu shɛŋa din daa kuli nyɛri ʒiri pam daa bi nyɛla din daa kuli yina ti saɣi ti Civil Rights Act of 1964, amaa ka daa nyɛla din daa kuli yina ti nya shɛli ka U.S. Supreme Court (the Warren Court) daa yɛli ni di nyɛla din pa niŋ talahi Loving v. Virginia

Di Yɛlimaŋli Nyɛbu

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Di ni yɛlimaŋli ni "Jim Crow law" yɛltɔɣa ŋɔ pili shɛm nyɛla yuuni 1884, lahabali yɛltɔɣa din daa yina ti wuhi niriba ban be Congress ni bɛ ni daa niŋdi shɛm.[14] Yɛltɔɣa ŋɔ daa lahi yina yuuni 1892 New York Times lahabali yɛltɔɣa puuni, din daa yɛli ni Louisiana daa zaŋ la "Jim Crow law" n-ti railroad cars din daa nyɛ din mali balibu.[15][16] Yɛltɔɣa ŋɔ ni pili shɛm nyɛla bɛ ni daa booni shɛli "Jump Jim Crow", yɛltɔɣa din daa nyɛ din yɛri niriba ban be America ka bɛ daa nyɛ ban mali bukaata. Ŋun daa yɛli yɛltɔɣa ŋɔ nyɛla Thomas D. Rice yuuni 1828. Yɛltɔɣa ŋɔ daa nyɛla din daa kuli yina ti nya shɛli ka niriba daa ti yɛli ni "Jim Crow" nyɛla yɛltɔɣa shɛli din yɛri niriba ban be America. Di ni daa niŋ ka niriba ban be southern polo daa kpa kpɛɣu shɛŋa din daa kuli nyɛri ʒiri pam zaŋ chaŋ niriba ban be America polo, kpɛɣu shɛŋa maa daa nyɛla bɛ ni daa booni shɛli Jim Crow laws.[15]


Yuuni 1865, kpɛɣu shɛli din daa kuli yina ti saɣi ti ni bɛ chɛ slavery America daa nyɛla bɛ ni daa kpa shɛli Congress ni daa ti saɣi ti shɛli Thirteenth Amendment yuuni 1865.[17]

Cover of an early edition of "Jump Jim Crow" sheet music (c. 1832)
Freedmen voting in New Orleans, 1867

Kpɛɣu shɛŋa din daa kuli nyɛri ʒiri pam daa nyɛla din daa kuli yina ti saɣi ti Civil Rights Act of 1866 mini Reconstruction Era, ka daa nyɛla din daa kuli yina ti nya shɛli ka niriba ban daa nyɛla ban mali bukaata daa nya bɛ maŋsi. Yuŋ ka dabba ni daa pili shɛli la, Southern Democrats n-daa deei nam kuɣisi niŋ Southern yaɣa jintɔriba ni[18] ka dabba ban nyɛ zuliya pam niŋ gutulunsi zuɣu, kamani Ku Klux Klan, White League, n-ti pahi Red Shirts (Southern United States) daa nyɛla ban kpaŋ bɛ maŋa ka che ka Republican party kpamba nyɛ ban yina ti kpaɣi bɛ zuɣu, ka bɛ daa lan nyɛ ban ku niriba pam ka che ka bɛ ku tooi lahi labi n-ti kpaɣi bɛ zuɣu[19]. Bɛ daa lan nyɛla ban yɛli yɛltɔɣa niŋ kpee n-ti sɔɣiri niriba ka che ka bɛ ku tooi lahi labi n-ti kpaɣi bɛ zuɣu. Di daa ti kpaŋsi pam ka bɛ ku tooi lahi labi n-ti kpaɣi bɛ zuɣu. Yɛli muɣisira yini daa ti kpaŋsi pam ka bɛ ku tooi lahi labi n-ti kpaɣi bɛ zuɣu, ka niriba pam daa ti kɔŋ bɛ nam dibu soli[20]. 1877 yuŋ ka niriba daa ti yina n-ti ŋme n-ti che ka bɛ ku lahi tooi labi n-ti kpaɣi bɛ zuɣu. Dabba ban nyɛ zuliya pam daa deei nam kuɣisi niŋ Southern yaɣa jintɔriba ni[21]. Bɛ daa lan nyɛla ban yɛli yɛltɔɣa niŋ kpee n-ti sɔɣiri niriba ka che ka bɛ ku tooi lahi labi n-ti kpaɣi bɛ zuɣu. Jim Crow dalirin daa nyɛla din yina n-ti sɔɣi niriba ka che ka bɛ ku tooi lahi labi n-ti kpaɣi bɛ zuɣu[22]. Niriba pam daa lan nyɛla ban yɛli yɛltɔɣa niŋ kpee n-ti sɔɣiri niriba ka che ka bɛ ku tooi lahi labi n-ti kpaɣi bɛ zuɣu. Bɛ daa lan nyɛla ban yɛli yɛltɔɣa niŋ kpee n-ti sɔɣiri niriba ka che ka bɛ ku tooi lahi labi n-ti kpaɣi bɛ zuɣu, ka niriba pam daa ti kɔŋ bɛ nam dibu soli[23][24]. Yuuni 1890 mini 1910 sunsuuni, di daa ti niŋ ka Confederate states pia ni yini daa ti yina n-ti ŋme n-ti che ka bɛ ku lahi tooi labi n-ti kpaɣi bɛ zuɣu[23][24]. Bɛ daa lan nyɛla ban yɛli yɛltɔɣa niŋ kpee n-ti sɔɣiri niriba ka che ka bɛ ku tooi lahi labi n-ti kpaɣi bɛ zuɣu, ka niriba pam daa ti kɔŋ bɛ nam dibu soli[25].

Niriba pam daa lan nyɛla ban yɛli yɛltɔɣa niŋ kpee n-ti sɔɣiri niriba ka che ka bɛ ku tooi lahi labi n-ti kpaɣi bɛ zuɣu, ka niriba pam daa ti kɔŋ bɛ nam dibu soli[26]. Niriba ban daa bi tooi lahi labi n-ti kpaɣi bɛ zuɣu daa lan nyɛla ban ku tooi lahi be nam ni[27].

Bɛ daa lan nyɛla ban yɛli yɛltɔɣa niŋ kpee n-ti sɔɣiri niriba ka che ka bɛ ku tooi lahi labi n-ti kpaɣi bɛ zuɣu, ka niriba pam daa ti kɔŋ bɛ nam dibu soli[28]. Niriba pam daa lan nyɛla ban yɛli yɛltɔɣa niŋ kpee n-ti sɔɣiri niriba ka che ka bɛ ku tooi lahi labi n-ti kpaɣi bɛ zuɣu[29].

Bɛ daa lan nyɛla ban yɛli yɛltɔɣa niŋ kpee n-ti sɔɣiri niriba ka che ka bɛ ku tooi lahi labi n-ti kpaɣi bɛ zuɣu, ka niriba pam daa ti kɔŋ bɛ nam dibu soli[30]. Niriba pam daa lan nyɛla ban yɛli yɛltɔɣa niŋ kpee n-ti sɔɣiri niriba ka che ka bɛ ku tooi lahi labi n-ti kpaɣi bɛ zuɣu.

Bɛ daa lan nyɛla ban yɛli yɛltɔɣa niŋ kpee n-ti sɔɣiri niriba ka che ka bɛ ku tooi lahi labi n-ti kpaɣi bɛ zuɣu, ka niriba pam daa ti kɔŋ bɛ nam dibu soli[31].

Woodrow Wilson daa nyɛla Democrat party jintɔri ŋun daa yina New Jersey, amaa ka o nyɛla ŋun daa yina Southern yaɣili[32]. O daa lan nyɛla ŋun daa piigi niriba pam ban nyɛ zuliya pam n-ti pahi o Cabinet ni[33].

O daa lan nyɛla ŋun daa yɛli yɛltɔɣa niŋ kpee n-ti sɔɣiri niriba ka che ka bɛ ku tooi lahi labi n-ti kpaɣi bɛ zuɣu. Bɛ daa lan nyɛla ban yɛli yɛltɔɣa niŋ kpee n-ti sɔɣiri niriba ka che ka bɛ ku tooi lahi labi n-ti kpaɣi bɛ zuɣu, ka niriba pam daa ti kɔŋ bɛ nam dibu soli[34].

Niriba pam daa lan nyɛla ban yɛli yɛltɔɣa niŋ kpee n-ti sɔɣiri niriba ka che ka bɛ ku tooi lahi labi n-ti kpaɣi bɛ zuɣu. Di daa ti kpaŋsi pam ka bɛ ku tooi lahi labi n-ti kpaɣi bɛ zuɣu, ka niriba pam daa ti kɔŋ bɛ nam dibu soli[35].

  1. ↑ Fremon, David (2000). [(link unavailable) The Jim Crow Laws and Racism in American History] Check |url= value (help). Enslow. ISBN 0766012972.
  2. ↑ Schmermund, Elizabeth (2016). [(link unavailable) Reading and Interpreting the Works of Harper Lee] Check |url= value (help). Enslow Publishing, LLC. pp. 27–. ISBN 978-0-7660-7914-4.
  3. ↑ Bubar, Joe (March 9, 2020). [(link unavailable) "The Jim Crow North"], Upfront Magazine - Scholastic. Retrieved June 7, 2021.
  4. ↑ Discrimination in Access to Public Places: A Survey of State and Federal Accommodations Laws, 7 N.Y.U. Rev.L. & Soc.Change 215, 238 (1978).
  5. ↑ Bartlett, Bruce (2008). [(link unavailable) Wrong on Race: The Democratic Party's Buried Past] Check |url= value (help). St. Martin's Press. pp. 24–. ISBN 978-0-230-61138-2.
  6. ↑ (April 2020) "[(link unavailable) Whiteness and the Emergence of the Republican Party in the Early Twentieth-Century South]" (in en). Studies in American Political Development 34 (1): 71–90. DOI:10.1017/S0898588X19000208. ISSN 0898-588X.
  7. 1 2 [(link unavailable) Legacy of Jim Crow for Southern Native Americans] (October 28, 2011).
  8. 1 2 Lowery, Malinda Maynor (2010). [(link unavailable) Lumbee Indians in the Jim Crow South: Race, Identity, and the Making of a Nation] Check |url= value (help). Univ of North Carolina Press. pp. 0–339. ISBN 9780807833681. Retrieved 27 November 2018.
  9. ↑ (1990) "[(link unavailable) Jim Crow, Indian Style: The Disenfranchisement of Native Americans]". Indian Law Review 16 (1): 167–202. DOI:10.2307/20068694.
  10. ↑ [(link unavailable) Brown v. Board of Education].
  11. ↑ [(link unavailable) Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka] (en).
  12. ↑ [(link unavailable) Two Landmark Decisions in the Fight for Equality and Justice] (en) (2017-10-11).
  13. ↑ [(link unavailable) Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States] (en).
  14. ↑ [(link unavailable) "Congressional"]. Sioux City Journal: p. 2. December 18, 1884. (link unavailable).
  15. 1 2 Woodward, C. Vann, and McFeely, William S. (2001), The Strange Career of Jim Crow. p. 7.
  16. ↑ [(link unavailable) "Louisiana's 'Jim Crow' Law Valid"]. The New York Times (New York): p. 1. December 21, 1892. ISSN 0362-4331. (link unavailable). "New Orleans, Dec 20. – The Supreme Court yesterday declared constitutional the law passed two years ago and known as the 'Jim Crow' law, making it compulsory on railroads to provide separate cars for black people."
  17. ↑ Jaynes, Gerald D. (2005). [(link unavailable) Encyclopedia of African American Society] Check |url= value (help). Sage. pp. 864–. ISBN 978-0-7619-2764-8.
  18. ↑ Milewski, Melissa (2017). [(link unavailable) Litigating Across the Color Line: Civil Cases Between Black and White Southerners from the End of Slavery to Civil Rights] Check |url= value (help). Oxford University Press. pp. 47–. ISBN 978-0-19-024919-9.
  19. ↑ Harriot, Michael (2021). "Reconstruction". In Kendi, Ibram X.; Blain, Keisha N. (eds.). Four Hundred Souls: A Community History of African America, 1619–2019. New York: One World. pp. 234–238. ISBN 978-0-593-13404-7.
  20. ↑ Perman, Michael (2009). [(link unavailable) Pursuit of Unity: A Political History of the American South] Check |url= value (help). Univ of North Carolina Press. pp. 138–. ISBN 978-0-8078-3324-7.
  21. ↑ Woodward, C. Vann, and McFeely, William S. The Strange Career of Jim Crow. 2001, p. 6.
  22. ↑ (2019-05-11) "Race and Authoritarianism in American Politics" (in en). Annual Review of Political Science 22 (1): 503–519. DOI:10.1146/annurev-polisci-050317-064519. ISSN 1094-2939.
  23. 1 2 Perman, Michael. Struggle for Mastery: Disfranchisement in the South, 1888–1908. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001, Introduction.
  24. 1 2 Kousser, J. Morgan,The Shaping of Southern Politics: Suffrage Restriction and the Establishment of the One-Party South, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1974.
  25. ↑ Richard H. Pildes, [(link unavailable) "Democracy, Anti-Democracy, and the Canon", 2000, pp. 12, 27]. Retrieved March 10, 2008.
  26. ↑ Glenn Feldman, The Disfranchisement Myth: Poor Whites and Suffrage Restriction in Alabama, Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2004, pp. 135–36.
  27. ↑ Reese, W. (2010). [(link unavailable) History, Education, and the Schools] Check |url= value (help) (in English). Springer. p. 145. ISBN 978-0230104822.
  28. ↑ Battles, D. M. (2009). The History of Public Library Access for African Americans in the South, or, Leaving Behind the Plow. Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow Press.
  29. ↑ Fultz, M. (2006). "Black Public Libraries in the South in the Era of De Jure Segregation". Libraries & The Cultural Record, 41(3), 338.
  30. ↑ Holt, Thomas (1979). Black over White: Negro Political Leadership in South Carolina during Reconstruction. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.
  31. ↑ Dittmer, John (1980). [(link unavailable) Black Georgia in the Progressive Era, 1900–1920] Check |url= value (help). University of Illinois Press. pp. 108–. ISBN 978-0-252-00813-9.
  32. ↑ Schulte Nordholt, J. W. [nl], and Rowen, Herbert H., [(link unavailable) Woodrow Wilson: A Life for World Peace]. 1991, pp. 99–100.
  33. ↑ Berkin, Carol; Christopher Miller; Robert Cherny; James Gormly (2011). [(link unavailable) Making America: A History of the United States] Check |url= value (help). Cengage Learning. pp. 578–. ISBN 978-0-495-90979-8.
  34. ↑ Blight, David W. (2001), Race and Reunion: The Civil War in American Memory, pp. 9–11.
  35. ↑ (2020-01-06) "[(link unavailable) Whiteness and the Emergence of the Republican Party in the Early Twentieth-Century South]" (in en). Studies in American Political Development 34 (1): 71–90. DOI:10.1017/S0898588X19000208. ISSN 0898-588X.
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