Yiɣi chaŋ yɛligu maŋamaŋa puuni

Atlantic slave trade

Pahimi soya
Diyila Dagbani Wikipedia
Reproduction of a handbill advertising a slave auction in Charleston, British Province of South Carolina, in 1769

Atlantic slave trade bee transatlantic slave trade nyɛla dabba daabiligu zaŋ gbaŋsabila labisi Americas ka bɛ nyɛ dabba. Gbaŋpiɛlla nyɛla ban daa piligi dabba daabilim 15th century ka bɛ zaŋ kpɛhi Americas nyɛla din daa piligi 16th century, ka daa chɛ 19th century.[1] Ninsalinima shɛba bɛ ni daa mali niŋdi dabba tali daabilim ŋɔ nyɛla ban daa yina Central Africa mini West Africa ka nyɛ West African dabba ɔdaabihi ni daa kɔhi shɛba n-ti European dabba daabihi.[2][3][4] European dabba daabihi ŋɔ nyɛla ban daa laɣindi gbaŋsabila ban nyɛ dabba ŋɔ mali ba n tahiri Americas.[5][6] Portuguese mini European shɛba nyɛla ban daa be dabba tali daabilim ŋɔ ni. Kamani National Museums Liverpool ni yɛlli shɛm: "European dabba daabihi ŋɔ nyɛla ban daa yi dari dabba ŋɔ African bee African-European daabhi sani."[7]

South Atlantic mini Caribbean daabihi nyɛla ban daa mali gbaŋsabila dabba ŋɔ n tumdi pukparilim tuma.[8][9] Gbaŋpiɛlla ŋɔ daa nya ka di mali ba anfaani pam.[10][11]

Din bɔŋɔ daa nyɛla din niŋ talahi n-ti Western European tingbana ka bɛ daa mali niya ni bɛ lahi nam "overseas empires" shɛŋa pahi.[12][13] Portuguese maa, 16th century saha, n daa nyɛ tuuli ban zaŋ daba duhi Atlantic. Yuuni 1526, bɛ daa naai tuuli daba "voyage" zaŋ chaŋ Brazil, ka European shɛba gba daa doli na din nyaaŋa.[14] Ban daa mali shitimanima daa nyɛla daba ka bɛ nyɛ nɛma ka bɛ ʒiriba tahiri Americas nini pɔbbu ni nɛma ni alaha,[12] ni bɛ kɔhiba ka bɛ tumdi "coffee", taba, cocoa, sichiri ni boraadenima tuma,salma ni "silver" gbibu, shinkaafa puri, ni pala malibu tuma du'zuɣuri, taabonima ŋmabu, ni yinsi tuma tumbu.[15] Bɛ ni daa zaŋ ba ni aʒianima maa zuɣu, bɛ daa nyami ka bɛ nyɛ tumtumdiba, ka bɛ daa kɔhiri bɛ mini neen shɛŋa dabam dahi ni.[16]

Atlantic daba dab tiŋgbana din daa mali yaa, zaŋ chaŋ daabiligu yaa polo, n daa nyɛ Portugal, Britain, Spain, France, Netherlands, ni United States, n-ti pahi Denmark. Shɛba daa bo la ʒi'shɛhi African teeku noya ni, n dari Africa kpamba ban daa kɔhiri daba sani.[17] Saha ŋɔ buɣisibu wuhiya ni kamani "12 million" zaŋ chaŋ "12.8 million" African nim ka bɛ daa mali niŋdi shitimanima ni n duhiri Atlantic kamani yuun kɔbisinahi polo.[18][19] Daabihi ŋɔ ni daa dari shɛba daa galisiya pam, amaa soli maa daa kuri niriba pam, ka niriba kamani 1.2 ni 2.4 million kpiri din ni. Tɔbu daa lahi nyɛla din kuri niriba pam, ni daba zaŋ chaŋ Europe n-ti niŋ daabiligu.[20][21][22][23] 19th century ni daa miri, gɔmnanti nim' pam daa mɔŋla lala daabiligu ŋɔ, amaa sɔɣi niŋ daa na nyɛla din beni. Amaa di daa naaya yuuni 1867, amaa shɛhira nim' wuhiya ni di daa kuli zaŋ ya hali ni yuuni 1873.[24] 21st century piligu, daa tim sandaani ni daba daabiligu niŋbu.

Pilli

[mali niŋ | mali mi di yibu sheena n-niŋ]

Atlantic travel

[mali niŋ | mali mi di yibu sheena n-niŋ]

Atlantic slave trade daa pilila sha shɛli di ni daa niŋ ka daba daabiligu pili "Old World" (Afro-Eurasia) ni "New World" (the Americas). Yuun gbaliŋ, ko'gbana yaa nyɛla din che ka kom ni chandi niŋ tɔm ka daa nyɛ pɔhili n-ti shitimnanima ban daa beni lala saha.[25] 15th century, European daa ʒi kom ni chandi tabiibi zaŋ tum tuma na, kamani caravel malibu, din daa sɔŋdi shitimanima ka bɛ tooi chani ko'gbana ni,ka bɛ ni tooi chani Atlantic Ocean ni.[26]Lala ŋɔ niŋbu ni, bɛ daa niŋ ningbuna ni west African teeku noli daba dabu zaŋ chaŋ Americas.[27] [28][29]

Taarihi baŋda John Thornton wuhiya, "ni tiŋgbani mini tabiibi-baŋsim zaŋ tum tumadalirinima n daa che ka Europe nim daa nyɛ ban tooi go n-gili Atlantic ka yɛligi di daabiligu".[30] European daa niŋdila daabiligu bɔri salima, bɛ ni daa yɛn tooi nya shɛli western Africa, ka bo kom ni soli din yɛn tooi kuli "the Indies" (India), bɛ ni yɛn tooi daa nɛma din mali liɣiri luɣ'shɛli.[31]

Portuguese mariners used caravel ships and traveled south along the West African coast and colonized Cape Verde in 1462.[32]

[33]

European kom ni yɛligibu daa che ka yaɣ'kura mini zaɣ'pala din maani "Columbian exchange", yuli daa boli Italy baŋda yuli, Christopher Columbus.[34] Di daa pilia "global silver trade from the 16th to 18th centuries" ka daa che ka European mali nuu timbu ni "Chinese porcelain trade".[35][36][37][38]

European slavery in Portugal and Spain

[mali niŋ | mali mi di yibu sheena n-niŋ]
The Spanish corsair Amaro Pargo, a well-known privateer of the Golden Age of Piracy, participated in the African slave trade in Hispanic America.

Zaŋ chaŋ 15th century, daa be Iberian Peninsula (Portugal mini Spain) zaŋ chaŋ Western Europe.Roman Empire daa malila di ni niŋdi di daba daabiligu shɛm.[39][40][41] Tum Western Roman Empire ni lu n naai, dailim balibu daa piliya Musulinsi ni Asori tiŋgbana din be peninsula zaŋ chaŋ ʒaamani Atlantic slave trade.[42][43] 1441–1444, Portuguese daabihi daa tuui gbahila Africa nim ban be Atlantic coast of Africa, zuŋɔ bɛ ni booni shɛli Mauritania, daa malila bɛ daba tahir Europe, ka bo bɛ biɛhigu shee Bay of Arguin.[44]

A map of the Spanish Empire (red) and Portuguese Empires (blue) in the period of their personal union (1581–1640)

[45][45][46]

15th century saha, di ni daa niŋ ka Balkan daba dabu daa du zuɣusaa ka che Ottoman Empire[47]mini Black Sea slave trade.[48][49]

Jews mini Mussulinima shɛba daa leei la Dolodolonima ka mali tahima ni di nyɛla din yɛn ti ba faako "Spanish laws" ni. Di ni daa ti niŋ ka bɛ nya tiŋgbani pala zaŋ chaŋ Atlantic, Spain daa bi bɔri ni Jews Musulinima kperi Amerikas ka di daliri nyɛla Spanish Crown Musulinima mini ban pa Dolodolonima nyɛla ban ni tooi zaŋ bɛ adiini wuhi Americans bilichininima.[50][51][52][53][54][55][56]

New Spain tiŋgbani ni, Spaniards malila "limpieza de sangre" kuri bukaata Africans mini Americans bilichinima zuɣu.[57][58][59]

Europe daa niŋla Musulinima fukumsi din yɛn che ka bɛ deei Dolodolo adiini.[60][61][62] Dum Diversas mini Romanus Pontifex daa naan tooi mali nuu timbu.[63][64][65][66] Inter Caetera gba daa lahi nyɛla ŋun bo maligu Portugal mini Spain sunsuuni zaŋ chaŋ tingban polo.[67][68]

Noah curses Ham by Gustave Doré – the curse of Ham was used as a justification to enslave Africans.[69]

[70]

Din bɔŋɔ mini sabiri shɛŋa nyaaŋa, European sasabiriba wuhi kari ni be shƐba zuɣu, Africa mini daba, din tahi daba daabiligu na.[71][72][73][74][75][76][77] Yuuni 1710, ʒingama nira daa niŋ shaawara ni Alonso García Ximénez,ŋun zilisi o ni o daa nyɛla ŋun bo faako ti African dabili yuli booni Sebastián, bɛ ni daa zaŋ so kulisi Venezuela ka o doli Amaro shitimanima ni yini. [77]

Yaha! Alhali ka 'Yahuudawa' ban daa leei 'Katolika' ni 'Musulinima daa nyela bi ni malindi sheba ansarisi, be sheba daa nyela ban mali nuu timbu ni Africa daba dabu maa puuni. Lisbon puuni zaŋ chaŋ 16th mini 17 centuries, Musilinim sheba daa nyala Jewish conversos ni bɔ ariʒichi zaŋ ti ka bi kohi Africa daba zaŋ kpa Sahara Desert polo ŋɔ yaha bi daa lahi gbahi Africa nim daba pɔi ni Atlantic slave trade ni di ʒemani Europe mini Africa puuni.[78] New Spain puuni, Spaniards daa zaŋ ´limpieza de sangre´ daa niŋdi Africa ni Native Americans ka bɛ zaŋ li daa labisi bilfu ('race') yɛla niŋbu ni, ka bɛ daa mali dihitabli ni bi ka kasi domini bi daa pa dolo dolo nima.[79][80][81]

Europeans daa nyala ban gbahi Musilinim daba ni ban kam daa doli adiini shela ka di pa Dolo dolo adiini ni di zugu chɛ ka bi gba leegi dolo dolo nima. Yuuni 1452, Pope Nicholas V daa nyala ŋun ti shahara gbaŋ yuli booni papal bull Dum Diversas, lala shahara gbaŋ ŋɔ nyala dini daa ti Portugal Naa maa soli ni o gbaagi ŋun kam zaa pa dolo dolo nira dabli. Shahara gbaŋ maa daa nyala din ti Naa maa soli ni o gbahi Musilinim ban be West Africa polo ŋɔ ka lahi yoogi daba kohibu ni dabu soli ka di nyala Catholic Church maa nuu n pa di zugu.[82]

Elmina Castle in the Guinea coast, present-day Ghana, was built in 1482 by Portuguese traders and was the first European-slave trading post in Sub-Saharan Africa.[83][84]
Established in Ghana by the Swedish African Company, Cape Coast Castle was built in 1653 as a trading post that later expanded to other European nations. With the arrival of British colonization, Cape Coast Castle became the headquarters of British colonial administration. "Throughout the 18th century, the Castle served as a 'grand emporium' of the British slave trade."[85][86][87]

African awareness of the conditions of slavery in the Americas

[mali niŋ | mali mi di yibu sheena n-niŋ]
A slave market in Dahomey

Di nyɛla din niŋ tom pam zaŋ n-ti gbaŋsabila shɛba ban be gbaŋsabila tiŋgbana ŋɔ ni ni bɛ tooi baŋ Atlantic slave trade ni nyɛ shɛli.[88][89]

Fenda Lawrence nyɛla ŋun daa nyɛ dabili ŋun yina Gambia ka daa be Georgia mini South Carolina.[90]

Slave market regions and participation

[mali niŋ | mali mi di yibu sheena n-niŋ]
Major slave trading regions of Africa, 15th–19th centuries

Europeanima nyɛla ban daa dari dabba gbaŋsabila tiŋgbana ni kpɛhiri Western Hemisphere dahi din be West Africa. Dabba kalinli shɛli bɛ ni kɔhi zaŋ n-ti New World nyɛla din wali. Bin din gbaai yuuni 1650 mini yuuni 1900 sunsuun, 10.2 million gbaŋsabila dabba nyɛ ban daa kpɛ America ka nyɛ ban daa yina tiŋgbani koŋkoba ni:[91][page needed]

Ethnic groups

[mali niŋ | mali mi di yibu sheena n-niŋ]

Balli koŋkoba zaŋ n-ti gbaŋsabila nyɛ ninvuɣ shɛba bɛ ni gbahiri dabba mali kpɛri America. Balli koŋkoba din gari pihinahi ni anu nyɛla bɛ ni daa zaŋ shɛba kpɛhi Amerca, lala balla ŋɔ shɛŋa nyɛ din doli na ŋɔ.[92][93][94]

  1. BaKongo zaŋ n-ti Democratic Republic of Congo, Republic of the Congo ni Angola
  2. Mandé zaŋ n-ti Upper Guinea
  3. Gbe bilichininima zaŋ n-ti Togo, Ghana, mini Benin (Fon, Ewe, Adja, Mina)
  4. Akan zaŋ n-ti Ghana mini Ivory Coast
  5. Wolof zaŋ n-ti Senegal mini the Gambia
  6. Igbo zaŋ n-ti Nigeria
  7. Ambundu zaŋ n-ti Angola
  8. Yoruba zaŋ n-ti Nigeria mini Benin
  9. Tikar mini Bamileke zaŋ n-ti Cameroon
  10. Makua zaŋ n-ti Mozambique

Human toll

[mali niŋ | mali mi di yibu sheena n-niŋ]
Slave trade out of Africa, 1500–1900

Daba dabu nyɛla din che ka Africa nim kɔŊ bɛ nyɛvuya pam Africa mini zaŋ yi Americas zaa. Buɣisibu wuhiya kamani 2 million[95] zaŋ chaŋ 60 million.[96][97][98]

Lala daabiligu ŋƆ nyɛla din saɣim daadama nim mini kaya ni taɣada.[99][100][101][102][103]

Destinations and flags of carriers

[mali niŋ | mali mi di yibu sheena n-niŋ]

Atlantic slave trade daa tooi zooi la tiŋgbana dibaa ayopɔin ni.[104][105]

Flag of vessels carrying the slaves
Destination Portuguese British French Spanish Dutch American Danish Total
Portuguese Brazil 4,821,1273,8049,4021,03327,7021,1741304,864,372
British Caribbean 7,9192,208,29622,9205,7956,99664,8361,4892,318,251
French Caribbean 2,56290,9841,003,90572512,7366,2423,0621,120,216
Spanish Americas 195,482103,00992,944808,85124,19754,90113,5271,061,524
Dutch Americas 50032,4465,1890392,0229,5744,998444,729
North America 382264,9108,8771,8511,212110,532983388,747
Danish West Indies 025,5947,7822775,1612,79967,385108,998
Europe 2,6363,43866402,00411908,861
Africa 69,20684113,28266,3913,2102,476162155,568
did not arrive 748,452526,121216,439176,60179,09652,67319,3041,818,686
Total 5,848,266 3,259,443 1,381,404 1,061,524 554,336 305,326 111,040 12,521,339

Gbaŋsabila tiŋgbana yaɣa shɛŋa lala bɛ daa tooi dari dabba ŋɔ nyɛ din be teebuli shɛli din doli na ŋɔ.

Source of slaves, by region
Region Embarked Disembarked did not arrive % did not arrive
Angola Coast, Loango Coast, and Saint Helena 5,694,570 4,955,430 739,140 12.98%
Bight of Benin 1,999,060 1,724,834 274,226 13.72%
Bight of Biafra 1,594,564 1,317,776 276,788 17.36%
Gold Coast 1,209,322 1,030,917 178,405 14.75%
Senegambia and off-shore Atlantic 755,515 611,017 144,498 19.13%
Southeast Africa and Indian Ocean islands 542,668 436,529 106,139 19.56%
Sierra Leone 388,771 338,783 49,988 12.87%
Windward Coast 336,869 287,366 49,503 14.70%
Total 12,521,339 10,702,652 1,818,687 14.52%

Russia

[mali niŋ | mali mi di yibu sheena n-niŋ]

Bin din gbaai yuuni 1802, Russian bilichininima nyɛla ban daa nya ka "Boston" (U.S.-based) daa mali gbaŋsabila dabba niŋdi daabilim ni Tlingit people din be Southeast Alaska.[106]

West Central Africa was the most common source region of Africa, and Portuguese America (Brazil) was the most common destination.
Distribution of slaves (1519–1867)[107]
Destination Percent
Portuguese America 38.5%
British West Indies 18.4%
Spanish Empire 17.5%
French West Indies 13.6%
English/British North America / United States 9.7%
Dutch West Indies 2.0%
Danish West Indies 0.3%

Effects

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World population (in millions)[108]
Year 1750 1800 1850 1900 1950 1999
World 791 978 1,262 1,650 2,521 5,978
Africa 106 107 111 133 221 767
Asia 502 635 809 947 1,402 3,634
Europe 163 203 276 408 547 729
Latin America and the Caribbean 16 24 38 74 167 511
Northern America 2 7 26 82 172 307
Oceania 2 2 2 6 13 30
World population (by percentage distribution)
Year 1750 1800 1850 1900 1950 1999
World 100 100 100 100 100 100
Africa 13.4 10.9 8.8 8.1 8.8 12.8
Asia 63.5 64.9 64.1 57.4 55.6 60.8
Europe 20.6 20.8 21.9 24.7 21.7 12.2
Latin America and the Caribbean 2.0 2.5 3.0 4.5 6.6 8.5
Northern America 0.3 0.7 2.1 5.0 6.8 5.1
Oceania 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.4 0.5 0.5

Lihimi m-pahi

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Kundivihira

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Citations

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  1. ↑ Diffie, Bailey (1963). Prelude to Empire: Portugal Overseas Before Henry the Navigator. University of Nebraska Press. p. 58.
  2. ↑ Gates, Henry Louis Jr. (22 April 2010). "Opinion – How to End the Slavery Blame-Game". The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html.
  3. ↑ Thornton 1998, p. 112.
  4. ↑ Exchanging People for Trade Goods. National Park Service.
  5. ↑ Implications of the slave trade for African societies. BBC.
  6. ↑ West Africa – National Museums Liverpool. International Slavery Museum.
  7. ↑ The capture and sale of enslaved Africans.
  8. ↑ The Rise and Fall of King Sugar.
  9. ↑ Sugar Plantations.
  10. ↑ Mannix, Daniel (1962). Black Cargoes. The Viking Press. pp. Introduction–1–5.
  11. ↑ Ives Bortolot, Alexander. The Transatlantic Slave Trade. Department of Art History and Archaeology, Columbia University.
  12. 1 2 Mannix, Daniel (1962). Black Cargoes. The Viking Press. pp. Introduction–1–5.
  13. ↑ Ives Bortolot, Alexander. The Transatlantic Slave Trade. Department of Art History and Archaeology, Columbia University.
  14. ↑ Weber, Greta (5 June 2015). Shipwreck Shines Light on Historic Shift in Slave Trade. National Geographic Society.
  15. ↑ Covey, Herbert C.; Eisnach, Dwight, eds. (2009). "Slave Cooking and Meals – Arrival in the Americas". What the Slaves Ate: Recollections of African American Foods and Foodways from the Slave Narratives. Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood Press. pp. 49–72. ISBN 978-0-313-37497-5. LCCN 2009003907.
  16. ↑ Berlin, Ira (9 April 2012). The Discovery of the Americas and the Transatlantic Slave Trade.
  17. ↑ Klein, Herbert S.; Klein, Jacob (1999). The Atlantic Slave Trade. Cambridge University Press. pp. 103–139.
  18. ↑ Segal, Ronald (1995). The Black Diaspora: Five Centuries of the Black Experience Outside Africa. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. p. 4. ISBN 0-374-11396-3. It is now estimated that 11,863,000 slaves were shipped across the Atlantic, citing Lovejoy, Paul E. (1989). "The Impact of the Atlantic Slave Trade on Africa: A Review of the Literature". Journal of African History 30 (3). DOI:10.1017/S0021853700024439.
  19. ↑ Meredith 2014, p. 194.
  20. ↑ Manning, Patrick (1992). "The Slave Trade: The Formal Demographics of a Global System". In Inikori, Joseph E.; Engerman, Stanley L. (eds.). The Atlantic Slave Trade: Effects on Economies, Societies and Peoples in Africa, the Americas, and Europe. Duke University Press. pp. 119–120. ISBN 0-8223-8237-7.
  21. ↑ Stannard, David (1993). American Holocaust. Oxford University Press.
  22. ↑ Eltis, David; Richardson, David (2002). "The Numbers Game". In Northrup, David (ed.). The Atlantic Slave Trade (2nd ed.). Houghton Mifflin. p. 95.
  23. ↑ Davidson, Basil. The African Slave Trade.Tɛmplet:Full citation needed
  24. ↑ Alberge, Dalya (4 January 2024). "Transatlantic slavery continued for years after 1867, historian finds". The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2024/jan/04/transatlantic-slavery-continued-for-years-after-1867-historian-finds.
  25. ↑ Thornton 1998, pp. 15–17.
  26. ↑ Christopher 2006, p. 127.
  27. ↑ Thornton 1998, p. 13.
  28. ↑ Chaunu, Pierre (1969). Conquête et exploitation des nouveaux mondes (xvie siècles) [Conquest and exploitation of new worlds (16th centuries)] (in French). Presses Universitaires de France. pp. 54–58.
  29. ↑ Launching the Portuguese Slave Trade in Africa. Lowcountry Digital Library at the College of Charleston.
  30. ↑ Thornton 1998, p. 24.
  31. ↑ Thornton 1998, pp. 24–26.
  32. ↑ Caravel.
  33. ↑ Thornton 1998, p. 27.
  34. ↑ McNeill, J. R.; Sampaolo, Marco; Wallenfeldt, Jeff (30 September 2019) [28 September 2019]. "Columbian Exchange". Encyclopædia Britannica. Edinburgh: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Archived from the original on 21 April 2020. Retrieved 5 September 2021.
  35. ↑ Hahn, Barbara (31 July 2019). Tobacco - Atlantic History. Oxford University Press. [[|Wp/azb/Digital object identifier|DOI]]:10.1093/obo/9780199730414-0141.
  36. ↑ Escudero, Antonio Gutiérrez (2014). "Hispaniola's Turn to Tobacco: Products from Santo Domingo in Atlantic Commerce". In Aram, Bethany; Yun-Casalilla, Bartolomé (eds.). Global Goods and the Spanish Empire, 1492–1824: Circulation, Resistance, and Diversity. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 216–229. doi:10.1057/9781137324054_12. ISBN 978-1-137-32405-4.
  37. ↑ Knight, Frederick C. (2010). "Cultivating Knowledge: African Tobacco and Cotton Workers in Colonial British America". Working the Diaspora: The Impact of African Labor on the Anglo-American World, 1650–1850. New York and London: New York University Press. pp. 65–85. doi:10.18574/nyu/9780814748183.003.0004. ISBN 978-0-8147-4818-3. LCCN 2009026860.
  38. ↑ Nater, Laura (2006). "Colonial Tobacco: Key Commodity of the Spanish Empire, 1500–1800". In Topik, Steven; Marichal, Carlos; Frank, Zephyr (eds.). From Silver to Cocaine: Latin American Commodity Chains and the Building of the World Economy, 1500–2000. Durham, North Carolina: Duke University Press. pp. 93–117. doi:10.1215/9780822388029-005. ISBN 978-0-8223-3753-9. Archived from the original on 26 July 2024. Retrieved 5 September 2021.
  39. ↑ Isaac, Benjamin (2006). "Proto-Racism in Graeco-Roman Antiquity". World Archaeology 38 (1): 32, 42. DOI:10.1080/00438240500509819.
  40. ↑ Isaac, Benjamin (2013). The Invention of Racism in Classical Antiquity. Princeton University Press. pp. 26, 142, 175. ISBN 9781400849567.
  41. ↑ Isaac, Benjamin (2013). The Invention of Racism in Classical Antiquity. Princeton University Press. pp. 55–60. ISBN 9781400849567.
  42. ↑ Phillips, William (2014). Slavery in Medieval and Early Modern Iberia. University of Pennsylvania Press, Incorporated. pp. 9, 18, 32, 57, 150. ISBN 9780812244915.
  43. ↑ Iberian Roots of the Transatlantic Slave Trade, 1440–1640 (en) (18 October 2012).
  44. ↑ Caldeira, Arlindo (2024). "The Portuguese Slave Trade". Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History. Oxford Reference. doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.013.903. ISBN 978-0-19-027773-4. Archived from the original on 11 May 2024. Retrieved 20 May 2024.
  45. 1 2 Korpela, J. (2018). Slaves from the North: Finns and Karelians in the East European Slave Trade, 900–1600. Nederländerna: Brill. 242
  46. ↑ Roşu, Felicia (2021). Slavery in the Black Sea Region, c.900–1900 – Forms of Unfreedom at the Intersection Between Christianity and Islam. Studies in Global Slavery. 11. Brill. pp. 35–36.
  47. ↑ The Cambridge World History of Slavery: Volume 2, AD 500–AD 1420. (2021). (n.p.): Cambridge University Press. 117-120
  48. ↑ Roşu, Felicia (2021). Slavery in the Black Sea Region, c.900–1900 – Forms of Unfreedom at the Intersection Between Christianity and Islam. Studies in Global Slavery, Volume: 11. Brill, p. 29-31
  49. ↑ The Cambridge World History of Slavery: Volume 2, AD 500–AD 1420. (2021). (n.p.): Cambridge University Press. 48-49
  50. ↑ The Early Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade: Emperor Charles V. College of Charleston.
  51. ↑ Maria, Martinez (2008). Genealogical Fictions Limpieza de Sangre, Religion, and Gender in Colonial Mexico. Stanford University Press. pp. 1–10, 11–20, 21–30, 31–40, 41–50. ISBN 9780804756488.
  52. ↑ Dunbar-Ortiz, Roxanne (2019). An Indigenous Peoples' History of the United States. Beacon Press. pp. 36–38. ISBN 9780807049402.
  53. ↑ Blood Cleansing Statutes. Center for Research and Dissemination of Sephardic Culture.
  54. ↑ Limpieza de Sangre: Legal Applications of the Spanish Doctrine of "Blood Purity". Library of Congress (10 September 2021).
  55. ↑ Spain and the Human Diaspora in 1492. Brown University.
  56. ↑ Thomas, Hugh (2013). The Slave Trade The Story of the Atlantic Slave Trade: 1440-1870. Simon & Schuster. pp. 12–13. ISBN 9781476737454. Archived from the original on 26 July 2024. Retrieved 1 February 2024.
  57. ↑ (2004) "The Black Blood of New Spain: Limpieza de Sangre, Racial Violence, and Gendered Power in Early Colonial Mexico". The William and Mary Quarterly 61 (3): 479–520. DOI:10.2307/3491806.
  58. ↑ (1997) "The Iberian Roots of American Racist Thought". The William and Mary Quarterly 54 (1): 143–166. DOI:10.2307/2953315.
  59. ↑ (2008) "Miscegenation and Racism: Afro-Mexicans in Colonial New Spain". The Journal of Pan African Studies 2 (3): 228–254.
  60. ↑ Mark, Charles; Rah, Soon-Chan (2019). Unsettling Truths: The Ongoing, Dehumanizing Legacy of the Doctrine of Discovery (PDF). Intervarsity Press. p. 16. ISBN 9780830887590. Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 July 2024.
  61. ↑ Thomas, Hugh (2013). The Slave Trade The Story of the Atlantic Slave Trade: 1440-1870. Simon & Schuster. p. 65. ISBN 9781476737454.
  62. ↑ Colonization, Captivity, and Catholic Authority.
  63. ↑ (2020) "Doctrines of Discovery". Wash. U. Jue. Rev 13 (1): 15–25.
  64. ↑ The Doctrine of Discovery, 1493.
  65. ↑ Doctrine of Discovery.
  66. ↑ AD 1493: The Pope asserts rights to colonize, convert, and enslave.
  67. ↑ The Papal Bull Inter Caetera of May 4, 1493.
  68. ↑ The bull of Julius II in Portuguese archives.
  69. ↑ (1997) "The Iberian Roots of American Racist Thought". The William and Mary Quarterly 54 (1). DOI:10.2307/2953315.
  70. ↑ Africans in Spanish America. National Park Service.
  71. ↑ Onyemechi Adiele, Pius (2017). The Popes, the Catholic Church and the Transatlantic Enslavement of Black Africans 1418-1839. Georg Olms Verlag. pp. 185–188. ISBN 9783487312026.
  72. ↑ Whitford, David M. (2017). The Curse of Ham in the Early Modern Era. Routledge. pp. 105ff. doi:10.4324/9781315240367. ISBN 9781315240367.
  73. ↑ The Historical Origins and Development of Racism.
  74. ↑ Thomas, Hugh (2013). The Slave Trade The Story of the Atlantic Slave Trade: 1440-1870. Simon & Schuster. pp. 35–40. ISBN 9781476737454. Archived from the original on 26 July 2024. Retrieved 23 January 2024.
  75. ↑ Rattansi, Ali (2020). Racism: A Very Short Introduction (2nd edn). Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780198834793. Archived from the original on 16 January 2024. Retrieved 16 January 2024.
  76. ↑ Was Slavery Always Racial?. California Historical Society & California History-Social Science Project.
  77. 1 2 Los destellos humanistas de Amaro Pargo contra la esclavitud (17 December 2023).
  78. ↑ "Atlantic slave trade", Wikipedia (in English), 2025-07-11, retrieved 2025-07-14
  79. ↑ "Atlantic slave trade", Wikipedia (in English), 2025-07-11, retrieved 2025-07-14
  80. ↑ "Atlantic slave trade", Wikipedia (in English), 2025-07-11, retrieved 2025-07-14
  81. ↑ "Atlantic slave trade", Wikipedia (in English), 2025-07-11, retrieved 2025-07-14
  82. ↑ "Atlantic slave trade", Wikipedia (in English), 2025-07-11, retrieved 2025-07-15
  83. ↑ Elmina Castle.
  84. ↑ (2020) "From Anomansa to Elmina: The Establishment and the Use of the Elmina Castle – From the Portuguese to the British". Athens Journal of History 6 (4): 349–372. DOI:10.30958/ajhis.6-4-4.
  85. ↑ Cape Coast Castle, Cape Coast (1653).
  86. ↑ Cape Coast Castle (1652- ) (2 December 2009).
  87. ↑ Cape Coast Castle History.
  88. ↑ Law, Robin (2004). Ouidah: the social history of a West African slaving 'port', 1727–1892. Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Press. pp. 148–149. ISBN 978-0-8214-1572-6.
  89. ↑ Sparks 2014, p. 243.
  90. ↑ Akyeampong, Emmanuel Kwaku; Gates, Henry Louis Jr. (2012). Dictionary of African Biography. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-538207-5. Archived from the original on 26 July 2024. Retrieved 10 August 2022.
  91. ↑ Lovejoy 2000.
  92. ↑ Hall, Gwendolyn Midlo (2007). Slavery and African Ethnicities in the Americas. University of North Carolina Press. p. [page needed]. ISBN 978-0-8078-5862-2. Archived from the original on 18 January 2017. Retrieved 24 January 2011.
  93. ↑ (22 December 2009) "Characterizing the admixed African ancestry of African Americans". Genome Biology 10 (12): R141. DOI:10.1186/gb-2009-10-12-r141. ISSN 1474-760X. PMID 20025784.
  94. ↑ (31 March 2010) "Little genetic differentiation as assessed by uniparental markers in the presence of substantial language variation in peoples of the Cross River region of Nigeria". BMC Evolutionary Biology 10 (1). DOI:10.1186/1471-2148-10-92. ISSN 1471-2148. PMID 20356404.
  95. ↑ Jon Stewart: Slave trade caused 5 million deaths.
  96. ↑ Stannard, David (1992). American Holocaust. Oxford University Press, USA. ISBN 978-0-19-508557-0.
  97. ↑ "Quick guide: The slave trade; Who were the slaves?". BBC News. 15 March 2007. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/6445941.stm.
  98. ↑ Stannard, David (1993). American Holocaust. Oxford University Press.
  99. ↑ Paths of the Atlantic Slave Trade: Interactions, Identities, and Images.
  100. ↑ American Freedmen's Inquiry Commission report, page 43-44
  101. ↑ Maddison, Angus (2007). Contours of the world economy 1–2030 AD: Essays in macro-economic history. Oxford University Press. p. 90.
  102. ↑ Jones, Adam (2006). Genocide: A Comprehensive Introduction. Routledge. pp. 23–24. ISBN 978-0-415-35385-4.
  103. ↑ Hartman, Saidiya V. (2021). Lose your mother: a journey along the Atlantic slave route. London: Serpent's Tail. p. 31. ISBN 978-1-78816-814-4. OCLC 1255859695.
  104. ↑ Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade – Estimates.
  105. ↑ Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade – Estimates.
  106. ↑ Dauenhauer, Nora Marks; Dauenhauer, Richard; Black, Lydia T. (2008). Anóoshi Lingít Aaní Ká, Russians in Tlingit America: The Battles of Sitka, 1802 and 1804. Seattle: University of Washington Press. pp. XXVI. ISBN 978-0-295-98601-2.
  107. ↑ Stephen D. Behrendt, W. E. B. Du Bois Institute for African and African-American Research, Harvard University. Based on "records for 27,233 voyages that set out to obtain slaves for the Americas". Behrendt, Stephen (1999). "Transatlantic Slave Trade". Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience. New York: Basic Civitas Books. ISBN 0-465-00071-1.
  108. ↑ The World at Six Billion (PDF) (Report). United Nations. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 January 2016.

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